This is a working overview of 鼻内给药, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
This page was last updated on 2025-10-12 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Semax 是人工设计的七肽，序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro，骨架取自促肾上腺皮质激素片段 ACTH(4-10)。它于二十世纪八十年代在苏联的分子遗传学研究机构内合成。设计目标是保留该片段与注意力和记忆相关的活性，同时剔除促皮质激素释放等内分泌作用。此后俄罗斯将其登记为药品并进入临床使用。
当时的短肽研究普遍关注能否穿越血脑屏障、在低剂量下产生中枢效应，Semax 属于这一路线。鼻内给药是其主要使用方式，俄语文献报道的适应症涵盖缺血性卒中、短暂性脑缺血发作、认知功能减退以及视神经病变。这些研究大多发表在当地期刊上，样本规模与终点设置同西方试验惯例存在差异，国际同行对其临床证据的强度看法不一。
各国监管态度分化明显。俄罗斯按处方药管理，部分东欧国家留有使用记录；欧盟与美国未批准其作为药物上市，市面流通品通常标注为研究用化学品。身份差异意味着标示含量、纯度与无菌性缺少统一核查。体育领域还牵涉反兴奋剂名录，跨境携带则受目的地药品法规约束。
Lyophilized material is chemically stable for extended periods when kept dry, cold, and protected from light. The powder is hygroscopic, so vials should be warmed to room temperature before opening to reduce condensation on the contents. Once dissolved, the peptide is far less stable because peptide bonds are susceptible to hydrolysis and the methionine residue can oxidize. Solutions are typically aliquoted and held at 2-8 °C for short intervals or frozen for longer ones, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles should be avoided.
Routine characterization relies on reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography to establish purity and on mass spectrometry to confirm molecular identity. Electrospray ionization and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization are both used for mass verification. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping can detect sequence errors. Common impurities include truncated sequences, methionine sulfoxide formed by oxidation, and deamidated products. Chromatograms are usually recorded near 214 nm, where the peptide backbone absorbs, and purity is reported as the percentage area of the principal peak.
Verification of a supplied batch generally combines a certificate of analysis with independent testing, because certificates are self-reported documents. A typical package includes a chromatographic trace, a mass spectrum, and a stated water or counter-ion content. Batch-to-batch consistency matters more than a single purity figure when results are compared across experiments. No single mandatory standard governs research-grade peptide release, so laboratories are expected to define their own acceptance criteria. Residual trifluoroacetate from purification is a frequently overlooked counter-ion.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 结构类别 | 线性合成七肽 | 无环化结构，不含二硫键 |
| 氨基酸序列 | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro | N 端为甲硫氨酸 |
| 分子量 | 约 814 Da | 游离碱形式的计算值 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 具吸湿性 |
| 溶解性 | 易溶于水 | 亦可溶于甲醇等极性溶剂 |
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its design combines the ACTH(4-7) core fragment with a C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension, a modification intended to improve stability and prolong activity. The molecule is hydrophilic, carries no lipid chains or glycosylation, and has a theoretical mass just over 810 daltons in its free form. All seven residues are proteinogenic amino acids, so no non-natural building blocks appear in the backbone. A free N-terminal methionine and C-terminal proline define the unmodified parent peptide.
The compound was developed during the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow as part of research on fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Early work examined short ACTH-derived sequences that retained neurotrophic effects while lacking the endocrine activity of the full hormone. Semax entered clinical use in Russia during the 1990s, where it received registration for several neurological indications. Outside that region it remained primarily a laboratory research material rather than an approved therapeutic. English-language literature on it grew more slowly and frequently cited the original Russian studies.
The mechanisms attributed to semax are inferred from animal and cell studies rather than traced to one confirmed target. The most frequently cited pathway involves increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal and cortical tissue. Some work points to engagement of melanocortin receptors, particularly MC4, which the parent ACTH fragment can activate. Effects on dopaminergic and serotonergic signalling have also been reported. No single account explains all observed results, and the relative weight of each pathway remains unsettled.
Published studies examine a fairly narrow set of endpoints. Rodent experiments commonly measure maze learning, infarct volume after induced ischemia, and tissue levels of neurotrophic factors. Clinical reports from Russian centres describe attention, memory and recovery scores in patients after stroke or transient ischemic attack. Most of those human studies are small and few have been repeated by independent groups. Outcome measures differ between studies, which limits direct comparison.
Daime members also uses the words Luz ("light") or Santa Luz ("holy light") Some nomenclature are created by the cultural and symbolic signification of ayahuasca, with names like planta professora ("plant teacher"), professor dos professores ("teacher of the teachers"), sagrada medicina ("holy medicine") or la purga ("the purge").
== Plot == As the Federation Starship Enterprise approaches the planet Omega IV, the USS Exeter is found orbiting it. Captain Kirk, First Officer Spock, Dr. McCoy and Lt. Galloway beam over to the Exeter to investigate. They find the ship deserted, save for a few uniforms that are covered with a crystalline substance found to be human remains. The ship's logs reveal that the Exeter's crew died from an infectious disease that had been brought from the planet, and that Enterprise's landing party is now infected and must beam down to the planet if they are to survive. Kirk's party beams down to the last coordinates stored in the Exeter's computer. There, they discover Exeter Captain Ron Tracey (Morgan Woodward). Tracey explains that he had been on the planet when the disease had ravaged his ship, stranding him. He says he has discovered that remaining on the planet confers immunity to the disease. He then reveals that the villagers he is living with on the planet, known as "Kohms", are at war with "savages" called "Yangs". After a Yang attack, Spock investigates the field of battle and finds evidence that Tracey has been helping the Kohms, in violation of the Prime Directive. Kirk tries to contact the Enterprise, but is prevented by Tracey, who tries to justify his violation by revealing that the planet’s natives are not only immune to the mysterious disease, but have also developed lifespans of over 1000 years. Tracey orders McCoy to investigate the secret of their longevity and has Kirk and Spock locked up in a crude jail with two Yang prisoners, one male and one female.
Automation inherent in precision agriculture, from "milking robots on dairy farms to greenhouses with automated climate control," can make crop and livestock management more efficient by reducing required labor.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
This is a selected list of Source engine mods (modifications), the game engine created by Valve for most of their games, including Half-Life, Team Fortress 2, and Portal, as well as licensed to third parties. This list is divided into single-player and multiplayer mods.
== Function == Hepatokines are hormone-like proteins secreted by hepatocytes, and many have been associated with extra-hepatic metabolic regulation. Through processes like autocrinem, paracrinem, and endocrine signaling, hepatokines can influence metabolic processes. Hepatocytes can secrete multiple hepatokines into the blood. In particular, these hepatokines, similar to hypothalamic hormones and insulin, are structurally polypeptides, and proteins and are transcribed and expressed by specific genes. The liver may emit hepatokines to influence energy homeostasis and inflammation under pressure on the metabolism like long-term starvation or over-nutrition. If the liver is unable to fulfill this process, the corresponding disease develops like fatty liver disease from, "impaired hepatic insulin-sensitizing substance production." Hepatokines signal energy status and help regulate nutrient availability to multiple peripheral tissues and the central nervous system (CNS). Hepatokines have been described to be involved in the regulation of energy and nutrient metabolism by acting directly on the liver or on distal target tissues. These proteins regulate glucose and lipid metabolism in the liver but also in the skeletal muscle or the adipose tissue. It is now clear that a single session of exercise is accompanied by the production of liver-secreted proteins. Hepatokines can also mediate the beneficial effects of chronic exercise or, at least, represent biomarkers of training-induced metabolic improvements.
== History == 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig claims to be the successor to the VfB Leipzig and SC Sportbrüder Leipzig teams, established in 1896 and 1893, respectively, and therefore, one of the oldest clubs of the German Football Association. However, they are not nominal successors. In 2018, 1. FC Lokomotive announced a merger with the formally extant but dormant VfB Leipzig in order to be entitled to the forerunner's titles. Due to the significant breaks and turmoil in the club's history, especially during the post-World War II era, their exact establishment date remains a source of contention.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
不存在。它是依据 ACTH 的一段序列人工设计的分子，天然蛋白质中找不到与之完全相同的七肽。名称属于研究代号，而非天然物质名。
Semax 对应 ACTH 第 4 至第 10 位的片段，并在两端做了替换与延长，使其不再具备促肾上腺皮质激素的典型内分泌活性。这一改动同时改变了它在体内的稳定性与分布特征。
俄罗斯将其列为处方药物，需要医生开具处方。多数其他国家把它当作研究化合物，不能作为药品销售或宣称疗效。具体合法性取决于当地法规。
Dry powder is normally held at -20 °C or lower, away from light and moisture. Sealed vials can also be kept at 2-8 °C for shorter intervals. Warming to room temperature before opening prevents condensation.