If you have been reading about ACTH analog and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Last reviewed on 2025-09-28. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s by researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. It was designed as a truncated analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, retaining only the fragment spanning residues four through ten. Investigators sought a peptide that would preserve the cognitive effects associated with ACTH while eliminating the hormonal stimulation of the adrenal cortex. The compound entered clinical use in Russia during the following decade.
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
Later generations of the molecule include an N-acetylated form and an amidated form, both marketed online alongside the parent peptide. These variants differ in terminal chemistry and stability, and they are frequently discussed in the same breath even though they have not been compared in controlled trials. Supply outside formal healthcare systems comes largely from laboratories that synthesize peptides to order. Purity and identity of these materials vary widely, and no single body oversees the international trade.
The mechanisms attributed to semax are inferred from animal and cell studies rather than traced to one confirmed target. The most frequently cited pathway involves increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal and cortical tissue. Some work points to engagement of melanocortin receptors, particularly MC4, which the parent ACTH fragment can activate. Effects on dopaminergic and serotonergic signalling have also been reported. No single account explains all observed results, and the relative weight of each pathway remains unsettled.
Published studies examine a fairly narrow set of endpoints. Rodent experiments commonly measure maze learning, infarct volume after induced ischemia, and tissue levels of neurotrophic factors. Clinical reports from Russian centres describe attention, memory and recovery scores in patients after stroke or transient ischemic attack. Most of those human studies are small and few have been repeated by independent groups. Outcome measures differ between studies, which limits direct comparison.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular class | Synthetic heptapeptide | Analog of an ACTH fragment |
| Amino acid length | Seven residues | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro |
| Origin | Moscow, 1980s | Institute of Molecular Genetics |
| Approved regions | Russia and some neighboring states | Not cleared in Western markets |
| Common trade names | Multiple national brands | Sold as a nasal formulation |
Semax 是人工设计的七肽，序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro，骨架取自促肾上腺皮质激素片段 ACTH(4-10)。它于二十世纪八十年代在苏联的分子遗传学研究机构内合成。设计目标是保留该片段与注意力和记忆相关的活性，同时剔除促皮质激素释放等内分泌作用。此后俄罗斯将其登记为药品并进入临床使用。
当时的短肽研究普遍关注能否穿越血脑屏障、在低剂量下产生中枢效应，Semax 属于这一路线。鼻内给药是其主要使用方式，俄语文献报道的适应症涵盖缺血性卒中、短暂性脑缺血发作、认知功能减退以及视神经病变。这些研究大多发表在当地期刊上，样本规模与终点设置同西方试验惯例存在差异，国际同行对其临床证据的强度看法不一。
Once dissolved, the peptide is considerably less stable than the solid. Aqueous solutions are usually prepared at neutral to slightly acidic pH, filtered, and divided into single-use aliquots before freezing. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are a common cause of avoidable loss and are best prevented by never refreezing a thawed aliquot. Adsorption to plastic and glass surfaces can lower the measured concentration of dilute solutions, particularly below roughly 0.1 mg/mL. Buffer choice, salt content, and container material all influence how much peptide remains detectable after storage.
Identity and purity are established with standard peptide methods. Reversed-phase HPLC with ultraviolet detection near 214 nm resolves the parent peak from deletion and truncation byproducts, and reports typically quote a main-peak percentage. Mass spectrometry by electrospray or MALDI-TOF confirms the expected molecular mass, while amino acid analysis or peptide mapping can verify composition when the sequence itself is in question. A certificate of analysis that pairs a chromatogram with a mass spectrum is more informative than a purity figure alone. Counter-ion content and residual solvents are separate specifications and are frequently omitted.
Semax 是一种人工合成的七肽，氨基酸序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro，单字母缩写记作 MEHFPGP。它被归类为促肾上腺皮质激素片段 ACTH(4-10) 的结构类似物，但并不天然存在于生物体内。母体片段 ACTH(4-10) 的序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Arg-Trp-Gly，Semax 替换了中间两个残基，并在羧基端延长了 Pro-Gly-Pro 三肽。这种延长被普遍认为能提升分子对肽酶的耐受性。
该化合物于二十世纪八十年代在俄罗斯被开发，相关工作由俄罗斯科学院分子遗传学研究所的研究团队主导。开发目标并非复制 ACTH 的完整激素活性，而是寻找保留其神经作用方向、同时去除促肾上腺皮质激素释放效应的短肽片段。研究记录显示，这一方向促成了多个相关短肽的合成与筛选，而 Semax 是其中被研究最广泛的一个。当地文献常以 Семакс 这一名称指代它。
研究兴趣主要集中在神经营养因子相关的路径上，包括脑源性神经营养因子与神经生长因子的表达变化。部分实验报告称在特定条件下观察到这些因子的水平上升，但具体信号通路和剂量依赖关系仍未完全厘清。多数公开数据来自细胞模型和动物实验，人体对照研究数量有限。因此，该化合物的作用机制在文献中属于活跃讨论，而非已经确立的定论。
== Veterinary use == Yohimbine has been used since the 1970s to reverse the effects of xylazine. A 2011 preliminary study found that intravenous yohimbine has slow elimination and a large distribution in horses. Yohimbine is not commonly used in small animal medicine anymore but is still commonly used in large animal medicine to reverse α2 adrenergic receptor agonists such as xylazine.
Hart had a guest appearance in the 2002 sitcom, Undeclared. He made his film debut in the 2002 film Paper Soldiers. Hart then had other film roles such as the Scary Movie franchise, Soul Plane, The 40-Year-Old Virgin, Death at a Funeral and Little Fockers. He turned down a role in the 2008 film Tropic Thunder because the character is gay, citing his own "insecurities". He played Doug in the film The Five-Year Engagement (2012) and appeared in Think Like a Man which was a box office success. He also appeared in the sequel. He had a cameo as himself in This Is the End. In 2013, Hart played a boxing promoter in Grudge Match and appeared in Exit Strategy as Mannequin Head Man. He also appeared in 35 and Ticking. In 2013, Hart co-created Real Husbands of Hollywood with Chris Spencer. The show follows Hart along with other married celebrities (each playing a comical fictionalized version of themselves) within the series including: Boris Kodjoe, Nelly, Duane Martin, J. B. Smoove, Nick Cannon and Robin Thicke. Thicke did not return for the second season due to his music career, though Hart has stated that the door is open for him to return. The series is filmed in a style similar to Bravo's The Real Housewives. Episodes often hinge on the "real" Hart's desperately unsuccessful attempts to climb Hollywood's celebrity social ladder (which always backfire in humiliating ways), and the character's barely-hidden envy of his more successful celebrity friends. A sneak peek was shown as a segment during the 2012 BET Awards and the official promo was released in October 2012.
=== Osteopromotion === Osteopromotion involves the enhancement of osteoinduction without the possession of osteoinductive properties. For example, enamel matrix derivative has been shown to enhance the osteoinductive effect of demineralized freeze dried bone allograft (DFDBA), but will not stimulate new bone growth alone.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
SJIA is diagnosed clinically and corroborated by typical test findings; it is a diagnosis of exclusion. A child suspected of having sJIA should undergo a full evaluation for infection and cancer, including blood and urine cultures, imaging tests, and bone marrow exams to rule out leukemia or lymphoma. The International League of Associations for Rheumatology criteria for sJIA include arthritis, ≥2 weeks of daily fever, and symptoms like organomegaly, lymphadenopathy, serositis, or non-fixed/evanescent rash. Laboratory abnormalities are typical, but no specific tests are available for sJIA. Treatment for a disease varies greatly, requiring consideration of involvement, systemic characteristics, and MAS presence. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications can be safely administered for analgesic and antipyretic effects without altering initial diagnostic assessment results. Clinical trials show that anti-interleukin-6 and anti-interleukin-1 drugs are effective in managing systemic symptoms. Studies show that 40% of children with SJIA have a monocyclic disease history, recovering after varying periods. A small percentage experience a polycyclic course, with over half having a prolonged disease course. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is the most prevalent rheumatic illness in children, affecting 1 to 4 out of every 1000. SJIA accounts for 10% to 20% of cases, with peak presentation between 1 and 5 years. Children of all genders and ethnic origins are equally affected.
==== Hoyer's mounting medium ==== Chloral hydrate is also an ingredient used for Hoyer's solution, a mounting medium for microscopic observation of diverse plant types such as bryophytes, ferns, seeds, and small arthropods (especially mites). Other ingredients may include gum arabic and glycerol. An advantage of this medium includes a high refractive index and clearing (macerating) properties of small specimens (especially advantageous if specimens require observation with differential interference contrast microscopy). Because of its status as a regulated substance, chloral hydrate can be difficult to obtain. This has led to chloral hydrate being replaced by alternative reagents in microscopy procedures.
Apoptosis in HeLa cells is inhibited by proteins produced by the cell; these inhibitory proteins target retinoblastoma tumor-suppressing proteins. These tumor-suppressing proteins regulate the cell cycle, but are rendered inactive when bound to an inhibitory protein. HPV E6 and E7 are inhibitory proteins expressed by the human papillomavirus, HPV being responsible for the formation of the cervical tumor from which HeLa cells are derived. HPV E6 causes p53, which regulates the cell cycle, to become inactive. HPV E7 binds to retinoblastoma tumor suppressing proteins and limits its ability to control cell division. These two inhibitory proteins are partially responsible for HeLa cells' immortality by inhibiting apoptosis to occur.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Three "File" editions reprinted selected content originally published between 1993 and 1996 in Edge issues 1–36. Each volume of "File" covered 12 issues. "Edge presents... The Art Of Videogames" (2007)
Rosiglitazone is a member of the thiazolidinedione class of drugs. Thiazolidinediones act as insulin sensitizers. They reduce glucose, fatty acid, and insulin blood concentrations. They work by binding to the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). PPARs are transcription factors that reside in the nucleus and become activated by ligands such as thiazolidinediones. Thiazolidinediones enter the cell, bind to the nuclear receptors, and alter the expression of genes. The several PPARs include PPARα, PPARβ/δ, and PPARγ. Thiazolidinediones bind to PPARγ. PPARs are expressed in fat cells, cells of the liver, muscle, heart, and inner wall (endothelium) and smooth muscle of blood vessels. PPARγ is expressed mainly in fat tissue, where it regulates genes involved in fat cell (adipocyte) differentiation, fatty acid uptake and storage, and glucose uptake. It is also found in pancreatic beta cells, vascular endothelium, and macrophages Rosiglitazone is a selective ligand of PPARγ and has no PPARα-binding action. Other drugs bind to PPARα. Rosiglitazone also appears to have an anti-inflammatory effect in addition to its effect on insulin resistance. Nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), a signaling molecule, stimulates the inflammatory pathways. NF-κB inhibitor (IκB) downregulates the inflammatory pathways. When patients take rosiglitazone, NF-κB levels fall and IκB levels increase.
=== Stationarity, reversibility, and homogeneity === Substitution models used in phylogenetics often assume that the evolutionary process is stationary, reversible, and homogeneous across all branches of the tree. These assumptions simplify both the theoretical framework and computational implementation of likelihood-based phylogenetic inference.
Sofer, G.; Hagel, L. (1997). Handbook of Process Chromatography: A guide to Optimization, Scale-up, and Validation. Academic Press, 158-161. ISBN 0-12-654266-X Tours, N. and Sandle, T. Comparison of dry-heat depyrogenation using three different types of Gram-negative bacterial endotoxin, European Journal of Parenteral and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Volume 13, No.1, 2008, pp. 17–20
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It originated at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the 1980s. The work was carried out by a Russian research group that specialized in peptide neuropharmacology.
It is registered as a medicine in Russia and has been used clinically there for decades. No regulatory agency in Western Europe or North America has approved it for any indication.
Semax corresponds to the four-to-ten fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Because it omits the first three residues, it lacks the adrenal-stimulating action of the full hormone.
It consists mainly of animal experiments and small clinical reports, with much of the clinical material published in Russian-language journals. Large independent trials are scarce. Separating reliable effects from chance findings is consequently difficult.